Why It Matters
The polyurethane foam in our mattresses, bedding, and other furniture can contain chemicals linked to negative health effects. Considering that we spend about one-third of our lives sleeping in bed, what it’s made of matters. Babies spend almost two thirds of their time sleeping. [1] And humans spend nearly 90% of their lives indoors where exposures add up.
Polyurethane foam is one of the most common types of foam used in mattresses and bedding. Yet, the mattress industry offers little transparency into the materials and processes used to manufacture conventional mattresses. Mattresses do bear labels, but they often contain jargon and fail to list every material and chemical used in the product. We believe that shoppers deserve to be informed and empowered when shopping for the items in their home that are meant to provide the most comfort.
What It Is
Polyurethane foam is one of the most common types of foam. The polyurethane foam that is used in most mattresses and furniture is made by mixing polyols with water and isocyanates, the primary building blocks of foam. [2] The process also uses other chemical catalysts, surfactants, and fillers, and can also use flame retardant chemicals. [3] Some manufacturers add auxiliary blowing agents, which influence the foam’s softness and density. [4] Most, if not all, of the ingredients used in making polyurethane foam are petroleum products, meaning they are derived from fossil fuels. Generally speaking, all of these ingredients are mixed together in a mold and react quickly, rising like a loaf of bread.
Where It's Found
Polyurethane foam is used in mattresses, pillows, and other bedding materials, as well as other products such as apparel, vehicle interior, footwear, children’s car seats, rug pads, and building materials.
The Health Concern
The manufacturing process and various components of polyurethane foam are where the human health concern lies. Polyurethane foam emits volatile organic compounds (VOCs), some of which can irritate eyes, nose and throat, cause headaches, and some are linked to cancer.
Polyurethane foam is also often treated with toxic flame retardants. Because it is highly flammable, [5][6] flame retardant chemicals are often used to meet mattress flammability standards. Pillows made with polyurethane foam do not require added flame retardant chemicals under federal flammability laws. However, that does not mean flame retardants are not used in the manufacture of pillows, as some companies may want to decrease their liability because polyurethane foam is highly flammable or because recycled foam containing flame retardants is used.
Isocyanates, a primary building block of foam, [2] are an occupational chemical of concern. [7] Exposure can cause asthma attacks, irritation to mucous membranes, skin inflammation, and chemical sensitization. [8] Isocyanates can also cause respiratory disease, even at low levels of exposure. [9] One isocyanate, toluene diisocyanate (TDI), is a known carcinogen. [10]
According to some foam industry sources, mattresses are “cured” during manufacturing, and so isocyanates are “inert” and therefore unable to migrate or off-gas from the product, once the mattress is manufactured. However, these claims may be made with few supporting reference materials. [9] More isocyanates are added than necessary for the chemical reaction that creates foam. [9] This means that not all of the isocyanates are used up in the reaction, and residual, unreacted isocyanates may be present in polyurethane foam. Adding excess isocyanates during manufacture could cause the slow release of isocyanates, resulting in the “exposure of the general population to low levels” of those chemicals from finished polyurethane products like foam bedding in which traces of unreacted TDI remain. [11] This occurrence is supported by several studies. [5][9[11]][12]
For more information about polyurethane foam and other materials in mattresses and bedding, check out MADE SAFE’s bedding report: Toxic Chemicals in Bedding, Safer Alternatives & Certified Products for Healthier Sleep.
How to Avoid It
● Choose mattresses and pillows made with alternatives to foam like pure, natural latex or natural fiber fillings. For example, choose a mattress with natural latex foam. Pillows made with latex, kapok, or cotton filling are great options. (Note: Make sure to avoid latex if you have an allergy.)
● Polyurethane foam is used in most furniture. Look for options that specifically use alternatives such as pure, natural latex or natural fibers as the filling. If those options are unavailable or out of the budget, you can consider safer synthetic materials like polyester filling. Because polyurethane foam is so hard to avoid in furniture, if you do purchase something containing it, ensure that flame retardants are not used at any point in the manufacturing process by contacting the manufacturer. Secondhand furniture containing polyurethane foam can be ideal because the amount of chemicals off-gassing tapers off over time. However, it’s important to be aware that some older furniture might be treated with phased-out more toxic flame retardant chemicals (such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers, more commonly known as PBDEs).
● Prioritize natural and safer materials like organic cotton, hemp, wool, and Tencel for products like bedding, apparel, footwear, and home textiles.
● Purchase children’s car seats made without polyurethane foam, or if purchasing a car seat with polyurethane foam, look for ones that do not utilize flame retardants in the manufacturing process. If the company is not clear about its usage of flame retardants, you can verify this by reaching out to them directly.
● Use rug pads made from alternative materials like natural rubber or latex (unless you have an allergy), felted wool, or jute. Or forgo the use of rug pads altogether.
● Shop MADE SAFE and MADE WISE Certified products.
References
[1] Stanford Children's Health. (2017). Newborn Sleep Patterns. Accessed March 17, 2026. Retrieved from https://www.stanfordchildrens.org/en/topic/default?id=newborn-sleep-patterns-90-P02632
[2] Arnold, S. M., Collins, M. A., Graham, C., Jolly, A. T., Parod, R. J., Poole, A., . . . Woolhiser, M. R. (2012). Risk assessment for consumer exposure to toluene diisocyanate (TDI) derived from polyurethane flexible foam. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 64(3), 504-515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2012.07.006
[3] Zhu, H. and Xu, S. (2020). Preparation of Flame-Retardant Rigid Polyurethane Foams by Combining Modified Melamine–Formaldehyde Resin and Phosphorus Flame Retardants. ACS Omega. 5(17): 9658-9667. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.9b03659
[4] Burt, J.G. and Brizzolara, D.F. (1997). Auxiliary Blowing Agents for Flexible Polyurethane Foam. Journal of Cellular Plastics. 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/0021955X7701300106
[5] Boor, B. E., Järnström, H., Novoselac, A., & Xu, Y. (2014). Infant exposure to emissions of 135 volatile organic compounds from crib mattresses. Environmental Science & Technology, 48(6), 3541. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24548111
[6] Borlase, G. A., Adair, P. K., & Mehta, S. (2012). Memorandum: Upholstered furniture full scale chair test -- open flame ignition results and analysis. Consumer Product Safety Commission, (CPSC). Retrieved from https://www.cpsc.gov/s3fs-public/openflame.pdf
[7] Ostrove, M. (2015, May). Working with a hazardous substance: One industry's workplace safety success. How the flexible polyurethane foam manufacturing industry manages the handling of toluene diisocyanate. Occupational Health & Safety. Retrieved from https://ohsonline.com/Articles/2015/05/01/Working-with-a-Hazardous-Substance.aspx
[8] National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (2014). Isocyanates. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved from https://archive.cdc.gov/#/details?url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/isocyanates/default.html
[9] Krone, C. A., Ely, J. T. A., Klingner, T., & Rando, R. J. (2003). Isocyanates in flexible polyurethane foams. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 70(2), 328-335. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12545367
[10] Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, (OEHHA). (1989). Chemicals considered or listed under proposition 65: Toluene diissocyanate. California Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved from https://oehha.ca.gov/proposition-65/chemicals/toluene-diisocyanate
[11] Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, (OEHHA). (2010). Notice of public comment for proposed revised reference exposure levels for toluene diisocyanate and methylene diphenyl diisocyanate. California Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved from https://oehha.ca.gov/air/crnr/notice-public-comment-proposed-revised-reference-exposure-levels-toluene-diisocyanate-and-methylene
[12] Boor, B. E., Liang, Y., Crain, N. E., Järnström, H., Novoselac, A., & Xu, Y. (2015). Identification of phthalate and alternative plasticizers, flame retardants, and unreacted isocyanates in infant mattress covers and foam. Environmental Science and Technology Letters, 2, 89-94.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.5b00039
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